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1. Enzymes detects and repairs damaged DNA
2. Nuclease enzyme cuts damaged DNA at two points and removes it
3. Repair synthesis occurs and DNA poly fills missing nucleotides using undamaged template strand
4. DNA ligase seals the end of the new DNA with the old DNA
no change in amino acid
The original G is replaced with A causing a mutation
Subtopic
There's no change to the amino acid
3' TACTTCAAACCAATT 5' 5' ATGAAGTTTGGTTAA 3'
5' AUGAAGUUUGGAUAA 3'
Met- Lys- Phe- Ser - Stop
Amino acid changed from Gly to Ser
3' TACTTAGCAAACCGATT 5' 5' ATGAATCGTTTGGCTAA 3'
5' AUG AAU CGU UUG GCU AA 3'
Met- Asn- Arg- Leu- ... 3'
This translation is shifted due to the addition of the two nucleotides. The entire sequence is now read differently.
inserts or deletes one or two nucleotides but never three
3' TACATCAAACCGATT 5' 5' ATGTAGTTTGGCTAA 3'
5' AUGUAGUUUGGcUAA 3'
Met- Stop
The change in DNA resulted in a stop codon so the rest of the mRNA is no translated
5' AUGAAGUUUGGCUAA 3'
Met- Lys- Phe- Gly- Stop
Occurs in cytoplasm
Large ribosomal unit attaches to mRNA consisting of A site (entry), P site (attaching) and E site (exit)
Another tRNA arrives at the A site carrying another amino acid and attaches to next codon following AUG
The second tRNA moves to P site and the amino acid of the first tRNA attaches while the first tRNA moves to E site
A new tRNA arrives at the A site with and moves to the P site attaching a new amino acid, forming a polypeptide chain
Elongation occurs until a stop codon (UAG, UAA or UGA) is reached
A release factor binds to the stop codon at the A site and acts a cleavage releasing the polypeptide from the last tRNA
The polypeptide released undergoes a modification process in which it is folded into a mature protein structure and translocated via mitochondria, ER lumen, plasma membrane, or lysosome.
The small and large ribosomal unit dismantles and awaits the next translation mRNA sequence
Binds to promoter
Formed by Poly-A Polymerase
Alternate Splicing
Used to make different proteins
Removal of Introns
Exons are put together forming mRNA
G-P-P-P
The TATA box is a DNA sequence (5'-TATAAA-3') within the core promoter region where general transcription factor proteins can bind.
In 1928, he wanted to create a vaccine for pneumonia
S strain has a smooth capsule and is pathogenic while R strain was nonpathogenic and had no capsule.
Something from the S had to be transferred into the R, making the bacteria lethal. Leading to the idea of transformation Bacteria can take up DNA from its environment
Bacteria Transformation
. Something from the S had to be transfered into the R, making the bacteria lethal . Leading to the idea of transformation . Bacteria can take up DNA from its environment
Bacteria taking DNA from environment
1 ORI
Multiple Replication bubbles
speeds up replication
Separates 2 DNA strands to form a replication bubble. It unwinds the double helix at replication forks.
Keeps DNA single stranded. It binds and stabilizes a single strand DNA.
Topoisomerase
It relieves overwinding by breaking, swiveling, rejoining DNA
Primase
Synthesize RNA primers on 5' end to 3' end for the Okazaki strand
DNA Polymerase 3
They add complementary bases to DNA and they add nucleotides on the 3' end (5'-> 3'). They need an RNA primer and need a sliding clamp.
DNA Polymerase 1
removes RNA primer and replaces it with the DNA nucleotides
DNA ligase
It seals gaps in nucleotide with phoshodiester linkage. It joines 3' end of the DNA that replaces primer to rest of the leading strand and joins Okazaki fragments of lagging strand.
sliding clamp
Disproved Conservative and dispersive models.
Bacteria moved to N14
centrifuged in CsCl
First Replication
Band in middle
Dense DNA in middle
Second Replication
Band in middle and top
DNA in less dense and dense area
E. Coli has 5 billion bases are copied at 2000 nucleotides per second.
Processivity
sliding clamp and polymerases
Phages or viruses that infect bacteria. They are made of DNA and proteins.
Sulfur for proteins because Proteins have sulfur. The protein was found in the supernatant fluid.
blended then centrifuged to see which was radioactive
DNA in 32P was radioactive not protein in 35S
DNA carried genes not protein
DNA is grown in Phosphorous because DNA has a phosphate group. DNA was found in the pellet.
The bacteriophages inject DNA to the bacteria so they make bacteriophages. The protein stay outside of the cell.
inject DNA into host
protein stays in cell
host grows bacteriophage parts and assembles in host cell
Cell bursts open
antiparallel strans
2 ATP is formed due to the extra phosphate group being transferred to ADP to form ATP
2 ATP is formed by the extra phosphate group on PEP being used with 2ADP to from 2 ATP
2 Pyruvates
Can stimulate or inhibit enzyme activity
Binds at one protein site and affects function of other sites
Initial Substrate
A
B
C
D
End product(inhibits pathway)
one substrate stabilizes enzyme to help subunits lock on enzyme.
ΔG = 0
Endergonic
energy input needed
non-spontaneous
ΔG > 0
Exergonic
energy released
spontaneous reaction
ΔG < 0
△G= △H-T△S
S= entropy (measure of temp)
T= Temperature (STP 273K)
H= enthlapy(potential of system)
H = G + TS
Universe
Polymerzation
Biosynthetic Pathways
Photosynthesis
6CO2 + 6H20 + light energy
Simple to complex
6 O2
Glucose
Simple molecule
Cellular Respriation
Glucose + 6 O2
Energy into the system
6 H2O
6 Carbon Dioxide
C(intermediate)
D(end product)
The activation gates on the Na+ and K+ channels
are closed, and the membrane’s resting potential is maintained.
A stimulus opens the
activation gates on some Na+ channels. Na+
influx through those channels depolarizes the
membrane. If the depolarization reaches the
threshold, it triggers an action potential.
Depolarization opens the activation
gates on most Na+ channels, while the
K+ channels’ activation gates remain
closed. Na+ influx makes the inside of
the membrane positive with respect
to the outside.
Step 4 - Falling Phase
The inactivation gates on
most Na+ channels close,
blocking Na+ influx. The
activation gates on most
K+ channels open,
permitting K+ efflux
which again makes
the inside of the cell
negative.
Step 5 - Undershoot
Both gates of the Na+ channels
are closed, but the activation gates on some K+
channels are still open. As these gates close on
most K+ channels, and the inactivation gates
open on Na+ channels, the membrane returns to
its resting state.
Receptor-Mediated Endocytosis
Pinocytosis
Phagocytosis
Coupled Transport by a
Membrane Protein
-Occurs when active transport of a solute indirectly drives
transport of other substances
H+/Sucrose Cotransporter (Diffusion of H+ and Active Transport of Sucrose)
A transport protein that generates voltage across a
membrane – membrane potential
(-50 to -200 mV)
Help store energy that can be used for cellular work
Proton Pump
3 Na+ Out / 2 K+ In
Ungated
Always Open
Gated
Voltage-Gated
Open and close in response to changes in membrane potential
Ligand-Gated
Open and close when a neurotransmitter binds to channel
Stretch-Gated
Sense-Stretch, Open when membrane is mechanically deformed
Carrier Proteins
Channel Proteins
Osmosis
Aquaporins
Hypotonic Solution
Plant Cells - Turgid (Normal)
Animal Cells - Lysed
Tonicity
The ability of a surrounding solution to cause a cell to gain or lose water
Hypertonic Solution
Plant Cells - Plasmolyzed
Animal Cells - Shriveled
Isotonic Solution
Plant Cells - Flaccid
Animal Cells - Normal
Net passive movement of molecules or particles from regions of higher to regions of lower concentration.
Large, Uncharged Polar Molecules (Glucose and Sucrose)
Small, Uncharged Polar Molecules (H2O, Glycerol)
Small Nonpolar Molecules (O2, CO2, N2)
Ions (Cl-, K+, Na+)
Saturated hydrocarbon tails
Unsaturated hydrocarbon tails with kinks
Glucose + Oxygen -> Carbon Dioxide + Water + Energy
C6H1206 + 6O2 -> 6CO2 + 6H2O + ATP
Occurs in mitochondria
OXIDATIVE PHOSPHORYLATION used for ATP production
ETC = Electron Transport Chain
Electrons move across integral proteins known as Complex I, III and IV.
Oxidation occurs
Complex 2: FADH2 to FAD
Oxidation occurs
CoEnzyme Q10
Mobile carrier of electrons lying on Complex II
Complex 3
Cytochrome C
Complex 4
O2 is oxidized to make H20 with H protons
H Protons move down concentratin gradient to make 28-32 ATP
Occurs in mitochondria matrix
SUBSTRATE LEVEL OXIDATION for the production of ATP
Isocitrate
a-Ketoglurate
Succinyl CoA
Succinate
Fumurate
Malatate
Oxaloacetate
Occurs in mitochondria matrix.
Occurs in cytosol
SUBSTRATE LEVEL OXIDATION to produce ATP.
2 ATP USED
ATP used
Fructose 6 phosphate
Fructose 1, 6 biphosphate
ATP used to convert Fructose 6 phosphate to Fructose 1, 6 biphosphate
DHAP (later forms G3P)
Aldolase
G3P
4 ATP FORMED
Membrane Receptor
Ion Channel Receptor
Ligand Gated Ion Channel
Tyrosine Kinase Receptor
2 polypeptide dimers (protein kinase)
Tyrosine dimers
G Protein Linked Receptors
Phosphatase for GDP and Pi
GTP binds to GPCR
Signals
Phosphorylation Cascade
Phosphatase
Enzyme catalyzes removable Pi from protein with hydrolysis
Protein Kinase
enzyme catalyzes Pi from ATP to proteins
Activiation of Cellular Response
Amplification effect to be efficient and fast
Intercellular Receptor
Nonpolar signal
Transduction
ligand or signal is bonded to membrane receptor
cell sap with inorganic ions
Photosynthetic prokaryotic
Oxygen-using nonphotosynthetic prokaryotic
permeable lipid bilayer and allows things into and out the cell
has protein and lipids in the bilayer; phospholipids
permeable lipid bilayer and allows things into and out the cell
Rough ER
bound ribosomes; distribute vesticles; secrete glycoprotein
Smooth Er
synthesize lipids; metabolize carbs
nuclear membrane
nuclear envelope with lamina (α and β) and nuclear pores
nucleolus
ribosomes produced; rRNA transcribed
Chromosome
Chromatin
DNA and histones
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
RNA produced and leaves nucleous
RNA makes contact with ribosomes (free or bound on Rough ER)
proteins are produced
Contractile Vacuole
pumps water out of cell
Food vacuole
packaging proteins
Cis Face
revieves vesicles from ER
Trans Face
releases vesible after altering it
low pH; has enzymes
phagocytosis
autophagy
metabolized H2O2-> H2O
droplets with lipid bilayer membranes to keep internal chemicals separate for the packaging of proteins and nucleic acids.
They are RNA with enzyme functions
PROKARYOTIC CELL
Nutrition
Heterotroph
Photoheteroph
Chemoheterotroph
organic compounds
Autotroph
Photoautotroph
light
Chemoautotroph
inorganic compounds
Endospores
protects chromosomes from harsh environment
Movement
flagella
cell wall
provides structure to cell and determines what enters or leaves cell
Metabolism of Oxygen
Facultative Anaerobes
Obligate Anaerobes
Obligate Aerobes
require oxygen for cell respiration
Prokaryotic Domains
Bacteria
Archaea
They are extremophiles, which are archaea that live in extreme environments.
Extreme Thermophile
Extreme Halophile
live in highly saline environment
Methanogens
ENDOSYMBIOSIS SYSTEM
Host Cell
A cell with a nucleus and Endoplasmic Reticulum.
Positive
Negative
Intermolecular interaction
e- shared unequally
Hydrophilic
Hydrophobic
e- shared equally
Nitrogenous Base
Cytosine-Guanine
Adenine-Thymine or Adenine-Uracil (RNA)
Phosphate Group
Deoxyribose or Ribose (RNA) Sugar
Trans Fats
Ex: margarine (very processed)
Unsaturated Fats
Ex: butter (solid at Room temperature)
Saturated Fats
Ex: olive oil (liquid at Room temperature)
Side Chain (R Group)
Non-Polar
Ex: CH
Polar
Ex: OH
Basic
Positive Charged R Group
Acidic
Negatively Charged R group
Main Chain
Carboxyl Group
Amino Group
Polymers - Disaccharides and Polysaccharides
