Kategorier: Alle - waves - electromagnetic - light - ions

af Katrina Davis 1 år siden

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SNC 2DL

The study of light and optics encompasses a variety of phenomena related to waves and the electromagnetic spectrum. This includes understanding different types of light such as X-rays, radio waves, infrared, ultraviolet, gamma rays, and visible light.

SNC 2DL

SNC 2DL

Light & Optics

Waves
Amplitude

The distance measured from one singular complete wave to the next within a wavelength.

Trough

The absolute lowest

Crest

The uppermost part of a wavelength (its peak)

Electromagnetic spectrum

Gamma Rays

X-rays

Ultraviolet Light (UV)

Visible Light

The Colour Spectrum

The colour spectrum visible to the human eye ranges from red to violet, (ROYGBIV). There are 3 colours true to the human eye, every other colour is our brain's conclusions of what it is seeing. These colours are red, green, and blue. True red and green make up yellow, true red and blue make magenta, and true blue and green make cyan.

Behaviour of Light

Refraction

Transmission

Absorb

Reflect

Infrared Light

Microwave

Radio

Chemistry

Chemical Reactions
Acid vs. Base

Substances that free hydroxide ions when dissolved in water. Many bases have hydroxide ion(s) in their formula (OH-).

Acid

A substance that produces hydrogen ions when dissolved in water. Recognised by their formulas, with at least one (H) at the start.

Types of Reactions

Combustion

Fast reactions of a substance with oxygen to produce oxides

Burns hydrocarbons: gasoline, natural gas, furnaces, stoves

CxHy = O2 --> CO2 + H2O

Hydrocarbon + oxygen ---> carbon dioxide + water vapour + energy



Incomplete Combustion

Occurs when burning happens, but with not enough oxygen

Neutralisation

Acid + Base --> water + ionic compound (SALT)

H__ + ___OH --> H2O + MNm


To recognize a neutralization reaction:

Double displacement

The cations in two compounds trade places

AC + BD ---> AD + BC

CuBr2 + K2S --> CuS + 2KBr

Single displacement

One element displaces another element in a compound

A + BC --> AC + B

Li + MgCl --> LiCl + Mg

Decomposition

A compound breaks down into 2 elements (or simpler compounds)

AB --> A + B

2NF3 --> N2 + 3F2

Synthesis

2 elements combine to make a compound

A + B --> AB

H + Cl --> HCl

Law of Conservation of Mass

The Law of Conservation of Mass states that in any chemical reaction the mass remains the same before and after the reaction (reactants to products). Matter cannot be created nor destroyed.

Chemical equations

Represents a chemical reaction.

Balanced equation

Includes coefficients in front of symbols so every atom is represented

ex. Mg (s) + 2HCl (aq) --> H2 (g) + MgCl2 (aq)

Word equation

Uses words/names to represent the reaction

ex. Magnesium (s) + hydrochloric acid (aq) --> hydrogen (g) + magnesium chloride (aq)

Skeleton equation

Uses chemical formulas/symbols to represent the reaction

ex. Mg (s) + HCl (aq) --> H2 (g) + MgCl2 (aq)

Atom
Ions

A positively or negatively charged atom due to the loss or gain of electrons.

Cations = positively charged

Anions = negatively charged

Molecular compounds

  1. Identify the elements
  2. Use the prefixes to add the correct subscript (no crossing/uncrossing ex. Sulfur tetrehydride = SH4)

Naming molecular compounds

  1. Given the chemical formula, use the subscript to decide which prefix to use and add it to the element name

2.The ending of the second nonmetal changes to "ide"

Ionic compounds

Formed from a cation (+) and an anion (-), usually a metal and nonmetal.

Polyatomic ions/compounds

Recognised by the formula having more than 2 elements or the name ends in "ate" or "ite", or some other name.

Finding formulas

From the name:

  1. Write the chemical symbols of each element with its valence.
  2. Add ions as needed so positives = negatives
  3. Write the element symbols with the correct subscript TO THE LOWEST TERMS

If the metal is multivalent

  1. Write the element symbol and its charge
  2. Cross the charges to complete the subscripts
  3. REDUCE TO LOWEST TERMS

Naming ionic compounds

  1. Name the metal first, including roman numerals if multivalent. (Ca = calcium)
  2. Name the nonmetal second, change the ending to "ide" (ex. Cl = chloride)
  3. Combine the ion names and name the compound (calcium chloride)

If the metal is multivalent

  1. Recognise if the metal is multivalent
  2. Uncross the subscripts to get the valence charge of each elements
  3. Use the nonmetal valence to verify the charge
  4. If it is correct, valence is also correct
  5. If it is incorrect, you need to multiply both the make the metal correct.

Properties

  1. At room temperature, most are hard, brittle, solids.
  2. Arrangement of positive and negatively charged ions forms crystals with defined edges when broken
  3. Every ion is attracted to another in crystal form, therefore they have high melting points.
  4. When dissolved in water, the ions move freely and solutions conduct electricity.

Biology

Systems
Organ Systems

Animal Organ Systems

11 systems of the human body

Lymphatic

White blood cells, thymus, spleen, lymph nodes, lymph vessels.

Immunity

Novel Coronavirus

Belongs to the family coronaviridae. Originates from an animal. Club-shaped proteins give a crown-like appearance (coronal).

COVID-19 + Systems

Some people will develop Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome with the infection.

Lung cells become inflamed making it harder to breathe. Alveoli become filled with fluid, making gas exchange harder, and therefore exhausting other cells as they are not getting enough oxygen.

The virus enters the cell via the ACE-2 receptor, and this receptor is 100x more occurring in the gastrointestinal tract, making vomiting and diarrhoea common symptoms.

Infection of the cell

SARS-CoV-2 infects the cell via the ACE-2 receptor

When COVID-19 infects the cell, it is more easily spread than the common cold, is a more serious illness, and has a longer incubation period before any syptoms appear during which the virus can still be spread.

Reproductive

Respective to males versus females

Excretory

Skin, kidney, bladder, ureter, urethra

Nervous

Brain, nerves, spinal cord

Endocrine

Glands, pancreas, ovaries, testes

Circulatory

The Circulatory System

Transportation path of the body. Transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and removes carbon dioxide and wastes. Also distributes heat to body parts and fights against disease.

Pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs and oxygenated blood to the body. Heart contracts, blood is pushed out of the heart. Heart relaxes, blood flows back in the heart. Sits in the chest cavity between the lungs, about the sized of your clenched fist.

Blood vessels

The pathway of blood

Blood

Approx. 4-6L in your body

55% plasma component: consists of water, proteins, nutrients, wastes. Maintains temperature, fights against disease, transports vitamins.

45% cellular component: red blood cells carry oxygen and then remove carbon dioxide; live 100-120 days. White blood cells fight foreign invaders, guard against infection; live for years. Platelets are proteins that release a blood clotting factor (forms scabs).

Respiratory

Nose, mouth, trachea, lungs, bronchi, bronchioles, alveoli, diaphragm

Digestive

The Digestive System

Purpose of breaking down food into nutrients to then supply cells with necessary nutrients for growth, maintenance, and repair

Muscular

All muscle tissue, tendons, ligaments

Skeletal

Bones, cartilage

Integumentary

Skin, hair, nails, glands

Plant Organ Systems

Shoot System

All above ground (stem, leaves, flower, and fruit)

Xylem pulls nutrients up from the roots through the stem via xylem.

Transpiration occurs as water evaporates from the leaf and therefore pulls up water molecules.

Root System

All below ground, the root system stores water/nutrients, absorbs, and transports from the ground to the stem.

Organs

Different tissues formed together to carry out a function. Includes lungs, skin, heart, etc.

Flower

Reproductive organ of the plant (stamen, pistil, ovary, petal, sepal)

Leaf

Location of photosynthesis/cellular respiration within the plant. Photosynthesis transforms carbon dioxide and water (absorbed via the root system to the stem) into sugar and oxygen.

Stem

Serves to transport nutrients from the roots of the plant to the rest of the plant, and from the plant back down to the roots once photosynthesis occurs within the leaf. Vascular tissue performs this function, xylem up, phloem down.

Roots

The roots anchor the plant, and stores food for the plant, as well as absorbing nutrient necessary from the ground itself.

Skin

Lungs

Heart

Tissues
Animal

Nervous tissue

Inputs signals, responds, causes reactions.

Muscle tissue

Cardiac muscle tissue

Heart specific muscle tissue, assists the heart in contracting and relaxing to pump blood to the rest of the body (circulatory system).

Smooth muscle tissue

Responsible for involuntary muscle movements, such as peristalsis, digestion within the stomach (i.e. walls), and the passing of nutrients through the intestines.

Skeletal muscle tissue

Responsible for voluntary movement of the body

Connective tissue

Fills space, makes up all other sorts of components to the body including blood, bones, ligaments, tendons, fats, etc.

Epithelial tissue

Protects and lines structures of the organism.

Plant

Vascular tissue

Transports nutrients and other materials throughout the plant. (xylem up and phloem down)

Ground Tissue

Provides structure and support to the organism.

Epidermal tissue

Protective layer on the outside of plant organs.

Meristematic tissue

Tissue made up of unspecialized stem cells with the purpose of growth within the plant.

Cells
Specialized cells

All cells start the same and then differentiate into specialised cells. Differentiation occurs so cells are assigned a specific function.

Stem cells

Unspecialised cells that have the potential to differentiate to become any cell and undergo any function. Scientists are interested in stem cell studies because of the potential to genetically differentiate stem cells to then repair and replace damaged tissue, such as in a cancer case.

The Cells Cycle

Interphase

Mitosis

Cytokineses

Apoptosis

Apoptosis

Apoptosis is the controlled death of a cell. A cell regularly undergoes 50-60 cell divisions before apoptosis occurs. Takes place when the cell can no longer preform its function or is no longer needed.

Cancer cells

A cell in which the genetic instructions (DNA) have been mutated and the cell loses control over it's division. These cells are essentially "immortal" because they do not stop dividing regardless of damage to the cells.

Tumours

A mass growth of cells

Malignant

Dangerous and could result in the death of the organism

Benign

Not dangerous to the organism (not cancerous)

Cell division

Cell division takes place for the purpose of growth of an organism, reparation of damaged cells/tissues, replacement of old cells, and reproduction.

Cell division begins with Interphase. During interphase, the nucleus of a cell is visible. The purpose of interphase during the cell cycle is:

Prophase

Metaphase

Anaphase

Telophase

Cytokinesis

Animal Cells

The organelles of the animal cell include:

-Cell membrane, separates the outside of the cell from the inside, controls movement of things in and out of the cell

-Nucleus, acts like a container; holds DNA and the nucleolus inside, control centre of the cell

-Chromatin: DNA that stores instructions for the cell's function

-Nucleolus, builds ribosomes

-Cytoplasm, jelly supporting organelles

-Endoplasmic Reticulum, transports materials through the cell

- Ribosomes, manufactures proteins that can be used in and outside of the cell

-Mitochondria, creates energy for the cell (site of cellular respiration)

-Golgi bodies, packages useful materials and sends them outside of the cell

-Lysosome, breaks down food, wastes, and other materials (cells break down if lysosome explodes)

-Vacuole, contains water, food wastes, and other materials that help maintain the shape

Plant Cells

Organelles of the plant cell include:

-Cell wall, specific to the plant cell, provides support and strengthens the cell and it's shape

-Cell membrane, separates the outside of the cell from the inside, controls movement of things in and out of the cell

-Nucleus, acts like a container; holds DNA and the nucleolus inside, control center of the cell

-Chromatin: DNA that stores instructions for the cell's function

-Nucleolus, builds ribosomes

-Cytoplasm, jelly supporting organelles

-Endoplasmic Reticulum, transports materials through the cell

- Ribosomes, manufactures proteins that can be used in and outside of the cell

-Mitochondria, creates energy for the cell (site of cellular respiration)

-Golgi bodies, packages useful materials and sends them outside of the cell

-Lysosome, breaks down food, wastes, and other materials (cells break down if lysosome explodes)

-Central vacuole, contains water, food wastes, and other materials that help maintain the shape

-Chloroplast, makes food for a plant cell (location of photosynthesis within the plant cell)


Cell Theory

The cell theory states;

-All living things are made up of cells

-Cells are the smallest working units of all living things

-All cells come from preexisting cells through cell division

Microscopes
The Compound Microscope

Base

Provides a stable platform for the microscope

Lamp

Supplies the light that passes through the specimen

Stage

Supports the slide for observation

Stage clips

Holds the slide in position on stage

Revolving nose piece

Fine adjustment knob

Sharpens an image

Coarse adjustment knob

Moves the stage up and down to focus on the specimen

Diaphragm

Allows light to pass through to the specimen; focuses light on the specimen

Arm

Holds the tube in place and is used to carry the microscope

Objective lenses

Magnify specimen, three lenses are usually 4x, 10x, 40x

Eyepiece/occular lens

Magnifies the specimen, usually by 10x

Biological drawings

Always use pencil!

Solid lines (no sketching)

Darker and lighter areas are contrasted using stippling

Don't cross label lines, labels to one side

Climate Change

Albedo Effect

Earth's method of controlling Sun's radiation

The Greenhouse Effect

Natural way for the Earth to stay warm. Normally, the amount of gases in the atmosphere is enough to moderate climate.

Greenhouse Gases

Water vapour

Water absorbs heat, more water vapours in atmosphere = warmer temperatures, makes more clouds (may have reflective effect)

Nitrous oxides

Naturally produced via the nitrogen cycle

Methane

Naturally occurring in low oxygenated areas ex. swamplands

Carbon Dioxide

Released naturally via the carbon cycle (slow process), released in natural forest fires.

The Anthropogenic Greenhouse Effect

Resulting from the influence of humans on nature;

Earth naturally keeps the greenhouse gasses in balance so that the atmosphere keeps the temperature ideal for the biosphere, human activities increase these levels.

Economic effect

Ex. In light of the climate cause, many governments choose to impose carbon taxes. In addition, prices of hydrocarbons (i.e. gas/petrol) will increase moving into the future, which not every household can afford.

Social effect

In impoverished countries, often 3rd-world countries, water access becomes increasingly limited as Day Zero approaches continuously. Water access is often tasked to the women, decreasing the amount of women who are completely educated within the countries. A lower rate of education has been shown to increase the amount of accidental/unplanned pregnancies as well as the average age a woman gives birth at decreasing. These factors will contribute to increasing populations.

Physical effect

Ex. Due to increased levels of precipitation and warmer temperatures melting snow quicker, flooding and water erosion become more of a common occurrence with more detrimental effects.

Adaptation vs. Mitigation

Mitigation

Adaptation

Sink

Something that takes out said element/compounds from the atmophere ex. carbon sink

Source

Something that contains and releases said element/compounds into the atmosphere ex. carbon source

Earth's Spheres
Hydrosphere

Liquid water, water vapour, and ice

Lithosphere

Rock, mantle, Earth's crust

Atmosphere

Gases surrounding Earth

Biosphere

Living organisms and ecosystems

Weather

Environmental conditions occurring in a particular place and time.

Climate

Average weather conditions in a region over long periods of time. (ex. average precipitation)