Introductory Biology II Concept Map - Aresha Bagheri

The Phosphorous Cycle

Organisms require it for nucleic acids, phospholipids, ATP and mineral components.

Most important inorganic form is phosphate, which plants use to create organic compounds.

reservoirs include...

sedimentary rocks

soil

oceans

organisms

phosphorous cycle

geological uplift

weathering of rocks

runoff

plant uptake

decomposition

leaching into aquatic environments

The Carbon Cycle

Carbon forms the framework of the organic molecules essential to all organisms.

Carbon is available in the form of CO2 to plants, which convert it to organic forms that are used by other organisms.

Major reservoirs of carbon include...

fossil fuels

soils

sediments of aquatic environments

the oceans

plant and animal biomass

the atmosphere

sedimentary rocks (the largest reservoir)

the carbon cycle

CO2 in atmosphere

Photosynthesis

cellular respiration

decomposition

consumers

phytoplankton

burning of fossil fuels

The Water Cycle

Water is essential to all organisms, and its avaliability influences the rates of ecosystem processes.

Liquid water is the primary physical phase of water.

The oceans contain 97% of water in the biosphere.

2% Of water is contained in polar ice caps.

1% of water is contained in lakes, rivers, and groundwater (negligible amount in atmosphere).

Water cycle

Evaporation by solar energy

Condensation of water vapor into clouds

Precipitation

Percolation through soil

Runoff and groundwater

Transpiration

The Nitrogen Cycle

Plants use two inorganic forms of nitrogen - ammonium and nitrate - and amino acids. Bacteria use these forms too as well as nitrite, animals can only use organic forms of nitrogen.

Reservoirs of nitrogen include...

the atmosphere (80%)

the soil

sediment

surface water and groundwater

biomass

the nitrogen cycle

N2 in atmosphere

NO3- in the water

aquatic cycling

Industrial fixation

fertilizers

runoff

denitrification

reactive N gasses

terrestrial cycling

Hominids (Australopithicus and Homo) and apes diverged from a common ancestor 5 million years ago.

Human DNA is 98.8% similar to the DNA of chipanzees

The oldest Hominid was Ardipithecus ramidus

Ardipithecus was bipedal

Australopithecus anamensis

A. afarensis

4 million years ago

Lucy was an A. afarensis

discovered in Hadar, Ethiopia

A. africanus

3 million years ago

A. boisei

2.5 million years ago

A. robustus

2 million years ago

Taung child

discovered in South Africa

Homo rudolfensis

Homo genus evolved 2 million years ago

H. habilus

Lived 2 million years ago to 1.8 million y.a.

H. erectus

H. sapien

evolved 300,000 years ago

H. sapiens (Neanderthals)

died out 22,000 years ago

humans have 3% neanderthal DNA

H. sapien sapien (modern human)

evolved 50-35,000 years ago

1 million years ago

Turkana boy

was a toolmaker

The oldest fossil remains of human ancestors were found in Africa.

then spread to the Middle East

to Europe

to Asia

to North America via land bridge

to South America

to Australia

60,000 years ago

Domestication first occured in the Middle East an South Europe 11,000 years ago

trends in human evolution

brain size in Hominid lineage increased dramatically from 500 to 1350 cubic centimeters

longer lifes span and and longer dependency

development of language paralells the evolutionary process

evolution - changes in allele frequencies within a population

Energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next

Only 1/3 of energy is transferred from one trophic level to the next.

The rest of the energy is lost as heat.

the sun is the primary source of energy

producers

herbivores

carnivores

top carnivores

decomposers and detritivores

heat energy lost

heat energy lost

heat energy lost

Only .02% of the sun's energy is captured by plants

heat energy lost

net primary productivity

plant growth per unit area per unit time

gross primary productivity minus plant respiration

gross primary productivity is the total photosynthesis per unit area per time

heat energy lost

energy flow is non-cyclic

handling time - the time it takes from capture of food item by a foraging organism to digestion

An ecosystem is a group of organisms that are connected by energy and mineral flow.

Genetic Variation in a Population

allele frequency

the proportion of a certain allele within a population

allele frequency=gene frequency=gametic frequency

gene pool

the set of all alleles at all loci in a population

Hardy-Weinberg Equilibrium

Allele and genotypic frequencies remain the same from generation to generation in a population in which there is...

no mutation

mutation - random change in the genetic code

the ultimate source of genetic variation in a population

mutation rates for many genes can vary from one out of ten to one hundred thousand

majority of mutations are detrimental

no genetic drift

genetic drift - random changes in allele frequencies from generation to generation

genetic drift results from sampling error in a population with limited size

founder effect - random changes in allele frequencies in a population during colonization

founder effect occurs within the same generation

bottleneck effect - random changes in allele frequencies within a population due to dramatic reduction of population size

reduction in size is either caused by some catastrophic events, or only the frequencies of those loci are considered that are not under selection

no migration

migration (gene flow) - the movement of genes between populations

migration rate - the proportion of immigrants in a population after migration

migration tends to eliminate existing genetic differences between populations

allele frequencies change in the direction of the doror/source population due to migration

p(M)=p(I)M+p(R)(1-M)

random mating

Inbreeding - mating between relatives - not random mating

leads to inbreeding depression - decrease of vigor or reproductive success due to inbreeding

selfing - most severe form of inbreeding

heterozygosity is halved between generations

positive assortive mating

increases homozygosity only at the locus for which the choice occurs

asexual reproduction

offspring are genetically identical to the parent

no selection

selection - differential reproduction among different phenotypes within a population

response to selection depends on the selection differential and the heritability of the trait in question

If Hardy Weinberg conditions are not met, then the population is evolving.

p+q=1, p²+2pq+q²=1

The increasse of the global average temperature on Earth

1 degree Celcius hotter on average

by the end of the century about 4 degrees Celcius hotter

The greenhouse effect - the trapping of heat in the atmosphere by certain greenhouse gasses.

CO2

CH4

produced in rice paddies, wet agriculture, intestinal system of cows, floors of oceans

nitrous oxides

produced naturally and man made

combine with sulfur dioxide to produce acid rain

CFC's

produced from cleaners, aerosols, refridgeration and cooling

Water vapor

caused by...

greenhouse gasses

such as CO2

human activity

depletion of the ozone layer

CFC's deplete ozone

future effects...

change in precipitation

rising sea levels

melting ice caps

warming oceans

more intense hurricanes

biological impacts

altitudinal/poleward shifts in species ranges

earlier spring events

coral bleaching

species extinction

natural selection

individuals that have certain inherited traits tend to survive and reproduce at higher rates than other individuals because of those traits

ex. antibiotics

artificial selection

the selective breeding of domesticated plants and animals to encourage the occurance of desirable traits

ex. corn crops

response to selection

heritability

proprotion of phenotypic variation that has a genetic basis

rated from 0 to 1, 0 is environmentally based, 1 is genetically based

selection differential

measures intensity or strength of selection

stabilizing selection

intermediates have advantage

directional selection

extremes are favored

ex. peppered moths

sexual selection

females chosing males based on their phenotype

ex.peacocks

2 components

males compete

females choose