Grammatical topics of B2 level of English

Significa "piedra antigua"

We can use used to to talk about past states that are not true any more.We used to live in New York when I was a kid.There didn't use to be a supermarket there. When did it open?Did you use to have a garden?We can also use used to to talk about past habits (repeated past actions) that don't happen any more.I used to go swimming every Thursday when I was at school.She used to smoke but she gave up a few years ago.used to + infinitive should not be confused with be/get used to + -ing, which has a different meaning. The difference is covered here.

La piedra al comienzo de la época se usó en su estado natural, posteriormente la tallaban.Fabricación de los primeros utensilios.Los humanos conocieron y aprendieron a utilizar el fuego.

We can always use the past simple as an alternative to used to or would to talk about past states or habits. The main difference is that the past simple doesn't emphasise the repeated or continuous nature of the action or situation. Also, the past simple doesn't make it so clear that the thing is no longer true.We went to the same beach every summer.We used to go to the same beach every summer.We would go to the same beach every summer.If something happened only once, we must use the past simple.I went to Egypt in 2014. 

We use the verb wish or the phrase if only to talk about things which we want but which are not possible:I wish I could see you next week.If only we could stop for a drink.I wish we had a bigger house.They are always busy. If only they had more time.John was very lazy at school. Now he wishes he had worked harder.

We use past tense modals would and could to talk about wishes for the future:I don't like my work. I wish I could get a better job.That's a dreadful noise. I wish it would stop.I always have to get home early. If only my parents would let me stay out later.

We use past simple and continuous to talk about wishes for the present:I don't like this place. I wish I lived somewhere more interesting.These seats are very uncomfortable. I wish we were travelling first class.I wish I was taller.John wishes he wasn't so busy.I'm freezing. If only it wasn't so cold.

After I/he/she/it, we can use were instead of was:I wish I was/were taller.John wishes he wasn't/weren't so busy.I'm freezing. If only it wasn't/weren't so cold.

We use the past perfect to talk about wishes for the past:I wish I had worked harder when I was at school.Mary wishes she had listened to what her mother told her.I wish I hadn’t spent so much money last month.

We use both will and to be going to when we want to make a prediction about the future. A prediction is a statement that we make about the future.When a person makes a prediction they say what they think will happen in the future.'Will' or 'Going To'? (Predictions)We use to be + going to + infinitive when we make a prediction based on evidence we have now.We use will + infinitive when we make a prediction which is only a guess or an opinion of ours.

We use the structure to be going to + infinitive if we make a prediction about the future because we have evidence now that supports us in making that prediction.This means that something now (in the present) tells us what is going to happen in the future.Predictions about the future are made every day. Here are some predictions that we see on a regular basis:

We also use the structure will + infinitive to make a prediction about the future. However, if we use this structure we are guessing or stating our opinion. We do not have any evidence in the present telling us what the future is going to be.

Use reported speech to talk about what another person said in the past.Eve:                      ‘I went to the party on Friday night’.James:                 ‘Eve said that she had gone to the party on Friday night’.        

am / is / are changes to was / were“I am fine.”   She said that she was fine.present simple changes to past simple“I like it.”  He said he liked it.present continuous changes to past continuous“She’s sleeping.”  He said that she was sleeping.will changes to would“I’ll be there.”   You said that you’d be there.can changes to could“I can come to the meeting.”   You said that you could come to the meeting.past simple changes to past perfect“I did the shopping.”  Tom said that he had done the shopping.present perfect changes to past perfect“I’ve read that book.”  I told him that I’d read the book.past continuous changes to past perfect continuous“She was walking home alone.”   He said that she had been walking home alone.present perfect continuous changes to past perfect continuous“I’ve been working,”   I told him that I’d been working

References to times in the past also may need to change when using reported speech, if that time is no longer the same.this morning / week / month→that morning / week / monthyesterday→the previous daylast week / month→the previous week / monthago→earlier / previouslytomorrow→the following daynext week / month→the following week / month

Use defining relative clauses to give information about a noun in a sentence. The listener or reader NEEDS this information to understand the sentence.A doctor is a person who cures sick people.The girl who sits next to me at work has a bag just like yours.

Use who to give more information about a person.An architect is a person who designs buildings.

Use which or that to give more information about a thing.A corkscrew is a thing which you use to open bottles.The book that you gave me for my birthday is really interesting.

Use where to give more information about a place.That’s the place where we got married.The town where my uncle lives is a few miles from here.Because non-defining relative clauses give essential information, no commas (,) are needed.If the noun which the relative clause describes (usually at the beginning of the sentence) is the OBJECT of the sentence, you can delete which, that or who.

Phrasal verbs are very common in English, especially in more informal contexts. They are made up of a verb and a particle or, sometimes, two particles. The particle often changes the meaning of the verb.I called Jen to see how she was. (call = to telephone)They've called off the meeting. (call off = to cancel)In terms of word order, there are two main types of phrasal verb: separable and inseparable. 

With separable phrasal verbs, the verb and particle can be apart or together.They've called the meeting off.ORThey've called off the meeting.However, separable phrasal verbs must be separated when you use a personal pronoun. The meeting? They've called it off.Here are some common separable phrasal verbs:I didn't want to bring the situation up at the meeting.(bring up = start talking about a particular subject)Please can you fill this form in?(fill in = write information in a form or document)I'll pick you up from the station at 8 p.m.(pick up = collect someone in a car or other vehicle to take them somewhere)She turned the job down because she didn't want to move to Glasgow.(turn down = to not accept an offer)

Some phrasal verbs cannot be separated. Who looks after the baby when you're at work?Even when there is a personal pronoun, the verb and particle remain together.Who looks after her when you're at work?Here are some common non-separable phrasal verbs:I came across your email when I was clearing my inbox.(come across = to find something by chance)The caterpillar turned into a beautiful butterfly.(turn into = become)It was quite a major operation. It took months to get over it and feel normal again.(get over = recover from something)We are aware of the problem and we are looking into it.(look into = investigate)Some multi-word verbs are inseparable simply because they don't take an object.I get up at 7 a.m.

Phrasal verbs with two particles are also inseparable. Even if you use a personal pronoun, you put it after the particles.Who came up with that idea?(come up with = think of an idea or plan)Let's get rid of these old magazines to make more space.(get rid of = remove or become free of something that you don't want)I didn't really get on with my stepbrother when I was a teenager.(get on with = like and be friendly towards someone)Can you hear that noise all the time? I don't know how you put up with it.(put up with = tolerate something difficult or annoying)The concert's on Friday. I'm really looking forward to it.(look forward to = be happy and excited about something that is going to happen)

The past perfect continuous is used when telling a story about the past. It is generally used alongside other narrative tenses such as the past simple.The past perfect continuous describes an event which was in progress for a period of time before another event in the past. We use it when we do not want to say the events in the order they happened.

John was having trouble sleeping, so he went to the doctor late.

John went to the doctor because he had been having trouble sleeping.The continuous event which happened before the other verb is in the past perfect tense.

They had already been waiting for half an hour.He’d only been working there a week before he got fired.

This means it is used when telling a story about the past.It is used in the same paragraph as verbs in the past simple tense, and is often used in the same sentence as a past simple verb.The past perfect describes an event which happened before another event in the past. We use it when we do not want to say the events in the order they happened.Example:A sentence with the events in the order they happened:John went to the shop on the way home from work, so he got home late.Both verbs are in the past simple.A sentence in which the events are NOT in order:John got home late because he had gone to the shop on the way home from work.The event which happened before the other verb is in the past perfect tense.

I wish:                                  I wish I had cleaned the house!Third Conditional:           If I had practiced harder, we might have won the competition.

The passive voice is used:a) When the object of a sentence is more important than the subjectThe city was destroyed by the volcano.b) When the subject of the sentence is unknown.This cheese was made in Canada. It is common in formal and scientific writing.

Narrative tenses are four tenses that we often use for talking about past events.It is useful to look at these tenses together in the context of the function narrating - relating past events.Narrative tenses are common in written stories, especially when they describe action

Past simpleopened, looked, walked, was

Past continuouswere blowing

Past perfecthad left

La piedra al comienzo de la época se usó en su estado natural, posteriormente la tallaban.Fabricación de los primeros utensilios.Los humanos conocieron y aprendieron a utilizar el fuego.

AdjectiveAre words that modify nouns. 

Are adjectives that modify a noun or pronoun by showing its quality..

Comparative adjectives are used to compare one noun to another noun. Superlative adjectives are used to compare three or more nouns.

An attributive adjective is an adjective that appears before the noun or pronoun it describes. In this lesson, we will learn more about them.

Compound adjectives are used as one single adjective. They function as the head of the sentence. In this lesson, we will learn all about them.

Proper adjectives are commonly used in English. They tend to modify nouns and pronouns. in this lesson, we will learn more about them.

Clauses are made of subjects and verbs that may need another clause to be completely meaningful. Adjective clauses function as the adjectives of sentences.

Adverbs are words that can modify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs.

We can put adverbs at the front, in the middle, or at the end of a clause. Each can have its own function. We'll also learn about the orders of adverbs.

For example:Next, put the turkey in the oven for 45 minutes.Undoubtedly, people have become more interested in social media.Unfortunately, we couldn't finish the project on time.

For example:Tomorrow my uncle is going to London.Usually I play football in the park with my friends.

For example:She often works at the weekend.She has probably gone home.I usually bake cookies.

For example:Adverbs of TimeI have my first math class today.Stop shouting now.Adverbs of PlaceWhat are you doing here?She visited him in hospital.Adverbs of MannerJust try and talk to her nicely.Traffic flowed smoothly.

This rule is called the order of adverbs or the royal order of adverbs and it is as follows:Adverbs of MannerAdverbs of PlaceAdverbs of FrequencyAdverbs of TimeAdverbs of Purpose

Comparative adverbs are used to compare the degree or intensity of an action or state between two things. Superlative adverbs, on the other hand, are used to compare the degree or intensity of an action or state among three or more things, expressing the highest or lowest degree.

Comparative adverbs are used to compare the degree or intensity of an action or state between two things. Superlative adverbs, on the other hand, are used to compare the degree or intensity of an action or state among three or more things, expressing the highest or lowest degree.

The positive degree is the base form of an adjective or adverb, which denotes a quality or action without making any comparison. For example:slowlynaturallygraduallywellfasthard

Comparative adverbs are used to compare the degree or intensity of an action or state between two things. Superlative adverbs, on the other hand, are used to compare the degree or intensity of an action or state among three or more things, expressing the highest or lowest degree.

When the adverb has only one syllable, the suffix -er is added to make it comparative. For example:fast → fasterhard → harderlate → laterlow → lowernear → nearerhigh → higher

If the adverb has two or more syllables, the determiner 'more' is added before the adverb to make it comparative. For example:carefully → more carefullyhappily → more happilysadly → more sadlyslowly → more slowlyquickly → more quicklybeautifully → more beautifully

Some adverbs have irregular comparative degree forms, which means their form completely changes when forming comparative adverbs. For example:well → betterbadly → worselittle → lessmuch → morefar → further/farther

For eample: He got a better score than me; he studied much harder than me.

For example:I work as hard as any other student in my class.Shyla cannot sing as beautifully as her sister.

Comparative adverbs are used to compare the degree or intensity of an action or state between two things. Superlative adverbs, on the other hand, are used to compare the degree or intensity of an action or state among three or more things, expressing the highest or lowest degree.

For example:fast → fastesthard → hardestlate → latestlow → lowestnear → nearesthigh → highest

For example:carefully → most carefullyhappily → most happilysadly → most sadlyslowly → most slowlyquickly → most quicklybeautifully → most beautifully

For eample: He got a better score than me; he studied much harder than me.

Adverbs of place help us express where the verb is taking place. Using them will help us be more accurate about locations.

Here is a list of the interrogative adverbs of place:WhereWhereverWheresoeverWhenceWhereaboutsWhereinWhereto

An adverb of place is usually placed after an intransitive main verb or after the object of a transitive verb. Usually, they appear at the end of a clause.He walked towards me. (after the main verb)Please put the book here. (after the object)To be more formal you can use adverbs that end in '-ward' or '-wards' to emphasize the formal style.I'm glad that they are homeward bound.Please step forward.

Many adverbs of place can also be used as prepositions. When used as prepositions, they must be followed by a noun. For example:He put his hand into his pocket.We walked slowly up the hill.

Adverbs of place are used to describe location, direction, and distance.

We can use adverbs of place to talk about the position of someone or something. For example:My mother is cooking in the kitchen.Let's go play outside.

Adverbs of place can be used to describe direction, indicating which way someone or something is moving or pointing. For example:She waved as she drove past.They always go abroad for their holidays.

For example:She turned away and looked the other way.He ran away from home.

Adverbs of time' give you some information about the time something happened. Using them will help us add details about time to our sentences.

The most common adverbs of time are those that indicate a specific moment in the past, present, or future. They include:past: yesterday, last year, just, before, previously, recentlypresent: still, today, nowfuture: tomorrow, soon, next week, later

Adverbs that talk about when are usually placed at the end of the sentence.I couldn't watch the series yesterday.I'll have to watch it today.The doctor will see you now.Adverbs that talk about how long are usually placed at the end of the sentence.Bake the cake for 45 minutes.She hasn't been quite herself for a while.They have lived in this mansion since the 1990s.

Adverbs of time (also called temporal adverbs) modify a verb to tell us when and for how long an action takes place.If you want to use more than one adverb of time in a sentence, follow this order:How long?How often?When?Py attention to the examples:I studies abroad for two months (How long?) last year (When?).She worked in a café for three days (How long?) every week (How often?) last month (When?).

There are different types of adverbs of time. For example, we have adverbs of time that indicate:a point in time (past, present, and future)I will finish my homework tonight.length of timeShe stayed for 4 hours.a relation between two points in timeI've already called her several times.

Adverbs of frequency show us how often an action takes place. We use them commonly in daily English so, it is essential to learn them.

Indefinite adverbs of frequency describe the frequency of an action or event in a general, approximate way. They do not provide a specific percentage or number of occurrences, but rather give a sense of how often something happens. We have six main adverbs of frequency that are commonly used in English:Adverbs of FrequencyPercent of Frequencyalways100%usually90%often70%sometimes50%rarely5%never0%Other, less common adverbs of frequency are:normally → 80%generally → 80%frequently → 70%occasionally → 30%seldom → 10%hardly ever → 5%I sometimes have to stay up late.I've never been to Paris.I rarely play any sports.

Definite adverbs of frequency provide a specific number of times an action or event occurs. They give a precise measurement of the frequency of an action or event rather than a general sense of how often something happens. These adverbs include:every dayonce a weektwice a monththree times a dayevery other daydailymonthlyweeklyNow pay attention to some examples:You should water these plants every other day.We meet monthly to discuss the project.The meeting takes place once a week.

Adverbs of frequency are placed before the main verb.I always travel with my friend.If the main verb is 'to be', the adverb of frequency must be placed after it.She is usually talkative and friendly.If the sentence contains an auxiliary verbs like 'do' and 'have,' the adverb of frequency must be placed between the auxiliary and the main verb.He has always been kind to me.I will never forget you.

Adverbs of manner give us more information about how the verb is done.

Adverbs of manner can often be formed from adjectives by adding the suffix '-ly'. For example:quick + -ly → quicklyeasy + -ly → easilyquiet + -ly → quietlyWhen forming adverbs, there can be some changes in the spelling. For example, when an adjective ends in -y we have to change the -y to '-i' and then add -ly:easy + -ly → easilyhappy + -ly → happilyangry + -ly → angrilyIf the adjective already has as -ly in the end, we use the phrase in a (...) way/manner to form an adverbial of manner. Pay attention to the examples:brotherly → in a brotherly mannerHe treats his relatives in a brotherly manner.silly → in a silly wayShe behaved in a silly way last night.deadly → in a deadly wayHe stared at his opponent in a deadly way.Some adverbs of manner have the same form as their corresponding adjectives. These adverbs are called flat adverbs, bare adverbs, or simple adverbs.hardShe worked hard on that project.lateCan you stay late?earlyI arrived early.fastOur son is growing up fast.highHe kicked the ball high.

Adverbs of manner are usually placed:after the main verb and or its object or object phrasebetween the auxiliary and the main verbat the beginning or at the end of a sentenceShe plays the piano beautifully.He couldn't calmly open the safe.She carefully opened the safe.Cheetahs run fast.

Use:Phrases often seen with this use of the future continuous include:By ..., This time next week..., In __ years’ time...; when + present simple; by the time + present simple.When you arrive, I’ll be driving home.By the time I get home, you’ll probably be having a bath.b) The future continuous can be used instead of the present continuous for future plans.Will you be going to Jane’s party?Yes, but I’ll be getting there a bit late, because I’m going to a meeting after work.c) We can also use the future continuous to make a guess about something that is in progress at the moment.Don’t phone Richard now, he’ll be having dinner.Oh no, I forgot about the dinner! It’ll be burning, I know it!These sentences are not about the future but we can use the future continuous to talk about what we assume is happening at the moment.

Use:      Phrases often seen with this use of the future continuous include:By ..., This time next week..., In __ years’ time...; when + present simple; by the time + present simple.When you arrive, I’ll have prepared the dinner.By the time I get home, my mum will probably have tidied the house.The future perfect is also use to make predictions about future events that will be complete before a specified future time.Do you think Mel will have eaten all the chocolate cake?No, she won’t have done that! 

Use:It can be used to make predictions about event that will be in progress before a specified time in the future. Joe won’t mind that we are late. He won’t have been waiting long.It can be used to predict what was happening in the past.“What do you think the men were doing in the store room?”“Don’t worry. They will have been unpacking boxes.”    Both the fixed future time and the length of time of are often mentioned in future perfect continuous sentences.By the end of this week, I’ll have been working here for five months.Fixed future time:          the end of this weekLength of time:                five monthsBut this is not always the case.Anne will be in a bad mood at the party this evening because she’ll have been doing housework.

Significa "piedra antigua"

First conditional sentences can use a variety of modal verbs.If + present simple, can / may / might / will / should + verb (infinitive)First conditional sentences can also use going to, as well as will.If + present simple, going to + verb (infinitive)If you don’t get ready soon, we’re going to be late!The present continuous and going to can also appear in the If clauseIf you’re going to the shop, can you buy me some cola?If you’re going to pay him, make sure you get a receipt.The present perfect may also appear in the If clause.If you’ve finished your work, you can go home.

If I finish my homework, may I go out with my friends?If you switch the photocopier off and on again, it should work.

This combination describes an imagined event in the past and the present result.If + past perfect, would + verb (infinitive)If he'd taken the medicine, he wouldn't still be sick.

If I finish my homework, may I go out with my friends?If you switch the photocopier off and on again, it should work.

This combination describes a situation which is never true, and the past consequence of this situation.If + past simple, would have + verb (infinitive)If you were better at speaking in public, the presentation would have been more successful.

If I finish my homework, may I go out with my friends?If you switch the photocopier off and on again, it should work.

Modal verbs are a type of verb that allows the speaker to express things such as advice, obligation, order, suggestions, capacity, request, permission, ability, and likelihood. Two important ones are “can’t have” and “needn’t have”

This modal verb expresses something that you are very sure didn’t happen in the past or when you believe something was impossible in the past.When using this modal verb, it follows the following formula:Can’t have + Past ParticipleFor example:The prisoner can’t have escaped through that window because it is too small.The kid can’t have been at the movie theater. He was at home all weekend studying for the exam.

If I finish my homework, may I go out with my friends?If you switch the photocopier off and on again, it should work.

“Needn’t have” expresses when an action was done but was most likely a waste of time and unnecessary.When using this modal verb, it follows the following formula:Needn’t have + Past ParticipleFor example:You needn’t have cooked so much food. We already ate before we came here.She needn’t have bought a new car. I was going to give one to her for her birthday.

If I finish my homework, may I go out with my friends?If you switch the photocopier off and on again, it should work.

The following modals can be used to guess what happened in the past.

Use this when you make a guess about the past, and you are almost certain that your guess is correct.‘The chickens have escaped! How did they get out?’

Use this when you make a guess about the past, but you are only suggesting one possibility. You are not certain you are correct.‘The chickens have escaped! How did they get out?’

Use this when you make a guess about what didn’t happen in the past, but you are only suggesting one possibility. You are not certain you are correct.‘Where’s John? Why isn’t he at the meeting?’

Use this when you make a guess about what didn’t happen in the past, and you are almost certain that your guess is correct.‘The chickens have escaped! How did they get out?’